What is gypsum? Gypsum is a naturally occurring di-hydrated calcium sulfate mineral, chemically represented as CaSO4.2H2O. This mineral dissolves in water and is found deposited below the earth’s surface in as a rock. Therefore, gypsum...Read More
Coffee berry borer (CBB), scientifically referred to as Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), is the most devastating pest of coffee across the world. It originated in Africa but has spread to most coffee-growing areas across the world....Read More
The beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua) is a a pest moth that was native to Southeast Asia before spreading to other regions of the world. It is found in warmer parts of Africa, America, Asia, and...Read More
Ozone as a disinfectant in water treatment Ozone is a gas molecule composed of three oxygen atoms (O3). It was first discovered in 1840 by a German chemist, and in 1906 it was used for...Read More
What is wastewater? Wastewater is water that has been used domestically or in the industry. Wastewater contains many pollutants, biological and chemical and, therefore, must be treated before it can be reused for other purposes....Read More
Cover crops play a significant role in the farmer’s field. Typically, cover crops are planted between harvests or for winter protection. They are considered temporary plants that provide many benefits for the cash crop and...Read More
Center pivot irrigation is a mechanized sprinkler system that irrigates crops in a circular pattern. In this type of systems, a long pipeline rotates around a central pivot point. The system is gaining popularity and...Read More
In effort to mitigate climate change, policymakers have advocated for the adoption of climate-friendly practices. Carbon farming has emerged as a way in which farmers can fight climate change and contribute to the global effort....Read More
Legume crops provide an important source of protein, carbohydrates and oils for humans and animals. One of their unique features is their ability to use atmospheric nitrogen as a nutrient source. Nitrogen is an essential...Read More
Although gardening is remarkably fun and healthy, it can also get a bit frustrating at times, especially when pests decide to make your plants their new homes. While many are handpicking aphids and smaller beetles,...Read More
Aluminum is a metallic element with a valency of +3. It is the third most abundant element in earth’s crust. Despite the fact that aluminum is not an essential nutrient, it has an agronomic importance...Read More
Global water demand is increasing sharply. One in nine people do not have access to clean water. That’s about 800 million people. In average, 200 people die every hour as a direct result of water...Read More
Aphids are a common pest of ornamentals, fruit trees and vegetables. Once spread, they may cause massive losses and transmit plant viruses. What are aphids and how you can identify them? Aphids are small, soft-bodied...Read More
Using drones is not as new concept as you may think. In fact, the first drones date back to the first world war era in the military. However, the modern world’s ever-increasing problems have resulted...Read More
Rust diseases are common plant fungal diseases, belonging to the order Pucciniales. They have a significant economic impact in several key crops. It is estimated that the disease causes global losses of around $1B of...Read More
Late blight is a destructive disease that primarily infects potatoes and tomatoes, but also other members of the Solanaceae family. The causative pathogen for late blight disease is fungus-like oomycete (water mold), scientifically named Phytophthora...Read More
Hydroponics is a growing method in which plants are grown in a mineral nutrient solution, with or without the use of a growing medium. There are several types of hydroponic systems, which will be further...Read More
Slow-release (SRF) and controlled-release fertilizers (CRF) are compounds designed to supply the crop with nutrients, in a rate that meets its nutrient demand. Unlike quick release fertilizers (QRF) that quickly dissolve in the soil and...Read More
Soil labs may report soil test results in different units. Often, growers may find this confusing, as their interpretation criteria they have available may use other units. Furthermore, for the same soil sample, different labs...Read More
Soil acidity is a major cause of reduced yields. Toxicity of micronutrients such as manganese, iron and aluminum may occur, while nutrients such as potassium, calcium and magnesium become unavailable. Furthermore, low soil pH impedes...Read More
Iron is required for the biosynthesis of the chlorophyll molecule and functions as an electron carrier in the respiration and photosynthesis reactions. In addition, it participates in many enzymatic processes. Iron deficiency is a limiting...Read More
Foliar fertilization, also referred to as foliar feeding, is the application of plant nutrients directly to the foliage of the plant by spraying the crop with a liquid fertilizer solution. While it can be used...Read More
The degree of soil acidity or alkalinity is expressed in pH units. Soil pH affects many processes in soils, including nutrient availability, activity of microorganisms and root development. The pH of...Read More
Alkalinity is the ability of the water to neutralize acidity. It refers to the presence of carbonates (CO32-), bicarbonates (HCO3–) and hydroxides (OH–) and expressed in mg/L (ppm) as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is also...Read More
After oxygen, silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in earth’s crust and is a constituent of most minerals. In soil solution, silicon is mainly present as monomeric silicic acid (H4SiO4), which is also...Read More
Water disinfection refers to the inactivation of microorganisms that are pathogenic to humans, animals or plants. Inactivation involves destroying essential structures or altering essential functions of microorganism. A microorganism is considered inactivated where: It is...Read More
Types of weeds Weeds are plants that grow where they are not wanted. They can be classified according to their life cycle. The three types of life cycles are: annual, biennial and perennial. Annual weeds...Read More
Powdery mildew is a common, widespread fungal plant disease that a wide variety of crops. There are multiple species of powdery mildew, belonging to the order Erysiphales, each has its own range of hosts. Signs...Read More
The water treatment process consists of a series of steps to remove or minimize impurities from water and make the water suitable for a particular purpose. The purpose can anything from recreational use of water...Read More
Fertilizers are compounds that are used in agriculture to supply nutrients for plants. They can be classified in a variety of ways. A specific fertilizer can belong to multiple fertilizer types. Classification according to the...Read More
Calculating fertilizer application rates starts with knowing the following: The required nutrient application rate The fertilizer grade / composition The field’s area Required nutrient application rate – this is the rate of nutrient to apply,...Read More
Variable rate irrigation (VRI) involves applying different amounts of water to different zones of the field, rather than applying one uniform irrigation rate to the entire field. Why use VRI? This innovative technology has many...Read More
Designing an irrigation system requires knowledge of the crop, field conditions, soil and water. Answering the following questions can help in determining the characteristics of the irrigation system. What is the soil texture? How much...Read More
Soil organic matter refers to the remains of plants, animals and microbes, in different decomposition stages. It consists of: Living soil organisms and plant residues Partially decomposed organic matter (detritus) Fully decomposed, stable organic matter,...Read More
Thrips are a pest of many agricultural crops. Thrips belong to the order Thysanoptera and feed on plant sap. There are over 5,500 species of thrips and about 75 species of them are pests of...Read More
Sanitation is one of the most important practices to reduce or avoid plant diseases in greenhouses. Pathogens, such as fungi, bacteria and viruses can survive well in the environment, including in crop residues, soil, tools,...Read More
Compost is a decomposed organic material used as a soil amendment. It is created in a process called “composting”, which is an aerobic process in which microorganisms break-down organic waste, either plant material or animal...Read More
Sugarcane is one of the most water-demanding crops and water availability is the single largest factors affecting its growth. According to studies, sugarcane yields can decrease by up to 70% under drought conditions. Climate change...Read More
Scouting and monitoring are crucial steps in making informed decisions about pest and disease management, which can go beyond pest control and affect other important practices (e.g. identifying nutrient deficiencies, water issues etc.). Proper scouting...Read More
In urban areas the slow sand filter simply occupies too much space. Therefore, rapid sand filtration has been developed and has become the most common type of filter for treating municipal water supplies. Typical filtration...Read More
Water is held in soil in the pores between the soil particles, therefore the maximum amount of water that a specific soil can potentially hold is equal to its porosity (total volume of pores). There...Read More
Ion exchange is a water treatment process used to remove undesirable ions from water and replace them with other, desirable ions. The applications of ion exchange in water and wastewater treatment include: Removal of Ca...Read More
Copper is an essential plant nutrient, classified as a micronutrient. It has a role in various important processes in plants. For example: Copper is a structural element in numerous proteins Essential for the photosynthesis process...Read More
Manganese is an essential plant micronutrient . It is absorbed by plants as Mn2+. Manganese is an immobile nutrient and, therefore, deficiency symptoms show up on younger leaves first. A manganese level of 20 to...Read More
The below nutrient uptake data of grapevines is based on an analysis of the different studies and research works. The nutrient uptake data must be adjusted based on soil and tissue analysis. Macronutrients – Nitrogen,...Read More
Three major control parameters are used in the activated sludge process: F:M ratio (Food:Microorganisms ratio), CRT (Cell Residence Time) and RAS flow rate (Return Activated Sludge flow rate). Adjusting these three parameters controls the entire...Read More
There are two main types of soil sensors used in agriculture to measure the availability of water to plants. Sensors that measure soil moisture. Sensors that measure the water tension in the soil (tensiometers)....Read More
IRRIGATION OF APPLES Irrigation of apples should be managed according to growth stages. The main growth stages are: Budbreak-flowering Beginning of rapid shoot growth Beginning of fruit fill Harvest Leaf fall Irrigation is particularly critical...Read More
Nutrient form conversions Nutrient concentration units Fertilizer rates units From To Multiply by kg/ha (kilograms per hectare) lb/ac (pounds per acre) 0.892 lb/ac kg/ha 1.12 MT/ha (Metric tonne/hectare) tons/acre (short tons/acre) 0.446...Read More
A nutrient solution is the mix of irrigation water with added nutrients. It is mainly used in soilless culture and hydroponics, where the nutrient solution is the only source of nutrients to the plants. Calculating...Read More
Soil testing is a key tool in fertilizer management. It reduces guesswork and helps in minimizing environmental pollution. When done and used properly, soil testing can save the grower money and increase crop yields. The...Read More
Urea fertilizers are widely used in agriculture. They are considered an economic nitrogen source. The chemical formula of urea is CO(NH2)2 and, in nature, urea is excreted in the urine of mammals. Commercial urea fertilizers...Read More
The use of beneficial insects for pest control is becoming increasingly common. The principle behind it is that some types of insects are natural enemies of insect pests. Therefore, by using beneficial insects the use...Read More
The electrical conductivity of an aqueous solution is its ability to conduct an electrical current. The electrical conductivity is an important parameter used to estimate the level of dissolved salts in water and soil. Salts...Read More
Depending on the soil type, fertilizers can be applied to crops before planting, right after planting or throughout the growth of the crop. Applying fertilizers prior to seeding or planting is referred to as pre-plant...Read More
All pesticides must come with a label, which must follow a certain standards. The pesticide label is a legal document that contains information on how to use the pesticide, handle, store and dispose it, as...Read More
The primary treatment cannot remove all dissolved and fine colloidal organic matter. Therefore, a biological treatment is required for removing those remaining components. All biological processes are based on microorganisms that feed on the organic...Read More
World population is growing rapidly. In fact, since the industrial revolution, population is growing faster than ever before. In 1920 there were 1.8 billion people in the world. Fifty years later, In 1970 population reached...Read More
Early blight is a common tomato disease, which can result in significant economic losses. It is caused by the fungi Alternaria solani or Alternaria tomatophila. The disease favors warm temperatures of 24-29 C and high...Read More
Nitrogen is an essential macronutrient, which all plants require for proper growth. It is an important constituent of the chlorophyll molecule, nucleic acids and proteins. Nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere and comprises about 78%...Read More
Fertigation is the application of fertilizers through the irrigation water. It can be applied in almost any irrigated crop, in both open field and greenhouses. Fertigation allows for a more efficient use of both water...Read More
Essential plant nutrients are elements that plants need for proper growth. Sixteen elements are considered essential nutrients for plants. These are carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca),...Read More
Once a problem that is suspected as a pest is detected, the pest must be identified in order to plan the pest management strategy. In some cases, a precise identification may require consulting with an...Read More
One of the questions tomato growers frequently ask is “why do my tomato leaves turn yellow?”. There are many possible reasons why tomato leaves might turn yellow. These include excessive watering, nutrient deficiencies, fungal diseases...Read More
Wastewater treatment is a multi-stage water treatment, in which wastewater is cleaned before it is: Discharged to a body of water. Used for irrigation Recycled for other purposes. Wastewater plants remove organic matter, nutrients, pathogens...Read More
What is a plant disease? A plant disease is defined as abnormal growth of the plant, or interference with the normal function of the plant. 3 conditions must exist in order for a disease do...Read More
WHAT ARE PESTICIDES? Pesticides are substances or mixtures that are used to prevent, destroy or control pests. Pests can be insects, diseases (fungi, bacteria), nematodes or weeds. Pesticides can be classified as chemical pesticides or...Read More
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a technology that exhibits behavior that could be interpreted as human intelligence. Can we apply artificial intelligence in agriculture? Can a computer be better than man in making decisions related to...Read More
Potassium is an essential plant nutrient, one of the three macro-elements required by plants in relatively large quantities – nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus (NPK). What are the roles of potassium in plants? How does potassium...Read More
The quality and composition of the irrigation water may affect plant development, soil structure and the irrigation system itself. Irrigation water quality refers mainly to the chemical composition of the water, or more specifically, to...Read More
Whiteflies belong to the order Hemiptera. They are related to aphids, scales and mealybugs. Whiteflies are tiny (0.8-1.5mm long), yellowish insects, with white wings. The origin of their name comes from the white wax that...Read More
The use of some disinfectants, such as chlorine, results in the formation of byproducts, many of them are considered carcinogenic. Disinfection byproducts are formed as a result of a reaction of the disinfectant with several...Read More
Irrigation scheduling refers to the timing, frequency and amount of water applied to the crop. In other words – when and how much to irrigate. There are various methods and models to determine irrigation scheduling....Read More
Water treatment with activated carbon is an adsorption process, in which impurities are trapped, by adsorption, on the surface of the carbon particles. The activated carbon particles have a porous micro-structure with a very large...Read More
Tomato plants can be affected by numerous plant diseases, caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses. Disease occurrence and development are greatly influenced by: Air temperature and humidity. Soil moisture. Pests that can transmit the disease....Read More
Water and wastewater may contain suspended and dissolved impurities that must be removed in order to meet certain water quality criteria. These impurities include: Silt Bacteria, algae and viruses Material derived from organic soil matter...Read More
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a membrane filtration process. It removes dissolved salts, as well as viruses and bacteria. The particle size removed by reverse osmosis is approximately 0.0001 to 0.001 micron. Reverse osmosis has various...Read More
Until recently, using agricultural apps and software was a rare practice among growers. This is now changing. The mass adoption of smart devices in the recent few years brought a huge change in the way...Read More
Precision agriculture refers to the use of technology that helps farmers to manage their fields in a more precise and accurate manner. These technologies include: Using precision agriculture technology to predict and monitor crop yields....Read More
Fertigation is a fertilizer application method, in which dissolved fertilizers are delivered to the crop through the irrigation system. This technology provides the opportunity to apply precise rates of water and fertilizers to the crop,...Read More
Desalinated water is being used for irrigation purposes in many places around the world, where the available water source is too saline to be used. Such water sources may include groundwater, sea water and sometimes...Read More
Pests can cause sever damages to crops, and if not controlled, some pests might even destroy the entire crop. Despite the great advancement in agricultural technology, many growers are still struggling with pests and often...Read More
Spider mites are a common pest of many greenhouse and open field crops. If not identified and controlled in time, it might result in significant losses. There are different types of spider mites There are...Read More
The measurement of soil Electrical Conductivity (EC) is widely used in agriculture. However, there is still confusion around the meaning of the readings and their application in precision agriculture. THE USE OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS...Read More
Water hardness is defined as the sum of the divalent metallic ions in the water. The main contributors to the hardness of the water are calcium and magnesium. Additional contributors to the hardness of the...Read More
The agtech boom over the last two years is indeed astonishing. Farmers are becoming more open to new, emerging precision technologies and are more willing to adopt them. Many great precision ag technologies are available...Read More
The aim of a filtration process is to remove solid particles and other impurities from water. This is accomplished by passing the water through a porous media. Here are 5 interesting facts you should know:...Read More
Deciding on the right water treatment process is a crucial step. Failing to understand the factors that will affect the decision and the design of the treatment process, might result in failure of the...Read More
The digital revolution is changing the way agriculture is done all over the world. Rapid population growth, changes in market demands, depleting agricultural land and significant changes in climate patterns, including much more frequent extreme...Read More